Delenda Carthago
4th January 2013, 13:35
Government
THE U.S.S.R. is an association of Soviet Republics, based on the principle of voluntary centralism.
http://64.19.142.10/www.marxists.org/history/ussr/government/1928/sufds/pictures/political-admin-thumb.jpg (http://www.marxists.org/history/ussr/government/1928/sufds/pictures/political-administrative-st.jpg) The Federal Government, representing the peoples within the Union, exercises complete authority in all matters relating to the central administration of the Union, viz., armed defense, foreign relations, transport and communications, political security. The Federal authority also exercises supervision to secure coordination and uniformity in regulations affecting economic matters, labor and the general well-being. Adherence to the Union does not limit the autonomy of the Republics in the field of internal administration.
The basis of the representative system rests upon the Soviets or elective councils.
The Soviet constitution (http://www.marxists.org/history/ussr/government/constitution/1918/index.htm) and laws are designed to afford the largest possible degree of autonomy and cultural development for the various national groups. They are free to preserve their distinctive customs, institutions and languages and a national group sufficiently numerous and geographically localized may under authorization form an autonomous republic or area with a full measure of local administrative autonomy.
The Soviets (http://www.marxists.org/glossary/orgs/s/o.htm#soviets), which are councils of delegates of a working citizenship, are designed to represent directly the productive life of the country. In the cities the basis of representation is mainly occupational, with the exception that persons in unorganized occupations (such as housewives) vote in geographic units. In the rural districts, where the productive life is homogeneous, the basis of representation is geographical.
Each village elects its local Soviet. The various village Soviets send delegates to a township (Volost) Soviet, which elects an executive committee to exercise administrative powers in its jurisdiction.
Similarly in the towns or cities delegates from the various productive groups of the community assemble in the town or city Soviet.
The District Congress of Soviets is composed of delegates from the village Soviets and from the Soviets of urban settlements of above 10,000 inhabitants. The delegates from the village Soviets are on the basis of one to 1,000 inhabitants, and in sparsely settled sections two or more villages may combine to send a delegate. The urban Soviets send one delegate to 200 electors.
The Provincial Congress of Soviets is composed of delegates from Urban Soviets, from Soviets of industrial settlements with a population of 5,000, and from the Volost Soviets.
In this fashion, from the original local or occupational unit, the Soviets pyramid up to the Congresses of Soviets representing the larger administrative divisions, the autonomous republics and areas, the constituent republics, and the entire Soviet Union.
The supreme organ of authority is the All-Union Congress of Soviets. This is composed of representatives of town and township Soviets, and of provincial Congresses of Soviets. It meets at least once in two years.(1) (http://www.marxists.org/history/ussr/government/1928/sufds/ch02.htm#foot-1)
During the interval between the All-Union Congresses of Soviets, the supreme authority devolves upon the Central Executive Committee, consisting of the Council of the Union and the Council of Nationalities.
The Council of the Union is elected by the Congress from representatives of the six constituent republics, in proportion to their population. It has in all 450 members.
The Council of Nationalities is formed of representatives of the Constituent and Autonomous Republics, five delegates from each, and of representatives of autonomous areas, one delegate from each, in all 139 members. The members of the Council are elected at the Republican and regional congresses of Soviets.
The Central Executive Committee (http://www.marxists.org/glossary/orgs/c/e.htm#central-executive-committee) meets three times a year. During the interval between sessions of the Central Executive Committee, the Presidium of the Committee is the supreme legislative, executive, and administrative organ of authority.
The Presidium of the Central Executive Committee consists of 27 members, nine representing the Council of the Union, nine representing the Council of Nationalities and nine elected by the two Councils in joint session.
The Council of People's Commissars (http://www.marxists.org/glossary/orgs/c/o.htm#cpc) is the executive and directive organ of the Central Executive Committee. Members of the Council are elected for two years. The following members of this executive cabinet were serving December 1, 1928:
Chairman: A. I. Rykov.
Vice-Chairmen: J. E. Rudzutak, V. V. Schmidt and V. V. Kuybyshev.
People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs: G. V. Tchitcherin.
People's Commissar for Army and Navy: K. E. Voroshilov.
People's Commissar for Transport: J. E. Rudzutak.
People's Commissar for Posts and Telegraphs; N. K. Antipov.
People's Commissar for Workers' and Peasants' Inspection: G. K. Ordjonikidze.
Chairman Supreme Economic Council: V. V. Kuybyshev.
People's Commissar for Labor: N. A. Uglanov.
People's Commissar for Trade and Commerce: A. I. Mikoyan.
People's Commisar for Finances: N. P. Briukhanov.
Director of Central Statistical Board: V. P. Miliutin.
On the same date the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee had the following six Chairmen: M. I. Kalinin, G. I. petrovsky, A. G. Cherviakov, Gazanfar Mussabekov, Netyrbay Aitakov, and Faizulla Khodzhayev. A. S. Enukidze was Secretary of the Central Executive Committee.
In each of the six Constituent Republics the legislative and administrative scheme is patterned on that of the federal Government. Each has its Congress of Soviets, its Central Executive Committee, and its Council of People's Commissars containing such Commissariats as are relative to the work of a Constituent Republic.
The same general scheme is also repeated in each of the Autonomous Republics, and likewise in the Autonomous Areas except that the latter have no Council of Commissars. In their scheme the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee fulfills the functions of the Council of People's Commissars.
In the Soviet administrative scheme, the People's Commissariats are divided into three categories: Commissariats of the whole Union alone; Commissariats which form part of the administrative scheme of the Constituent Republics, as well as of the Federal Government; Commissariats which appear in the Constituent Republics alone.
Commissariats of the whole Union alone are: Foreign Affairs, Army and Navy, Transport, Posts and Telegraphs, Trade and Commerce. The divisions of Trade and Commerce dealing with the internal trade are also in the Constituent Republics.
Commissariats in both the Federal Government and the Governments of the Constituent Republics are: Supreme Economic Council, Labor, Finance, Workers' and Peasants' Inspection.
Commissariats of the Constituent Republics only: Agriculture, Internal Affairs, Justice, Education, Health, Social Welfare.
The Supreme Court of the Union, attached to the Central Executive Committee, includes in its functions the following:
• To give the Supreme Courts of the Constituent Republics guiding interpretations on federal legislation.
• To render to the Central Executive Committee opinions on decisions of the Supreme Courts of the Constituent Republics which may seem in contradiction to the general legislation of the Union, or to affect the interests of the other republics.
• To give opinions, on demand of the Central Executive Committee, on the constitutionality of legislation of the Constituent Republics.
• To decide legal conflicts between the Constituent Republics.
• To examine cases of accusation against high officials of the Union.
A pyramidal representative form, similar to that adopted for the entire Union, with local and town Soviets as the base, obtains in each of the six Constituent Republics and in the autonomous republics and areas.
The permanent judicial system was established January 1, 1923. It includes People's (District) Courts of both civil and criminal jurisdiction, Provincial Courts of Second Instance, Supreme Courts of the Constituent Republics, and the Supreme Court of the Union, subdivided into various courts of special jurisdiction. There are also special Labor Courts, which may be the local People's Court sitting in special session for labor cases. A Civil Code, a Criminal Code, a Land Code and a Labor Code, and Codes of Civil and Criminal Procedure, were adopted in November, 1922. The first Code of Civil Status, defining marriage, family and guardianship rights, was adopted in 1918; a new code became operative January 1, 1927.
During the period of civil war and foreign intervention (http://www.marxists.org/glossary/events/r/u.htm#russian-civil-war-1918-20) the local administration of justice was largely in the hands of revolutionary Tribunals and Special Tribunals. The Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution (Cheka), which was abolished at the close of 1922, had extraordinary jurisdiction in important offenses against public order.
A federal Political Department with broad powers (O.G.P.U.) is attached to the Union Council of People's Commissaries for the purpose of combating political and economic counter-revolution, espionage and banditry. The Union Supreme Court has supervision over the legality of the actions of the O.G.P.U.
(...)
Soviet Democracy
Through various organizations, official, economic and civic, it is estimated that between 9,000,000 and 10,000,000 persons are actively engaged in the administration of the Soviet Union. The organization of society is designed to give public activities the broadest scope and to give the greatest possible number of the population the opportunity for active participation in their direction.
A total of 1,539,458 citizens were serving in 1927 as elected delegates to the various Soviets (local, township, provincial, republican and federal). Thus over a million and a half citizens, nearly 2.5 per cent of the total adult population, form part of the administrative machinery of the country. From io to 12 per cent of these delegates are women. In addition to these elected delegates upwards of a million workers and peasants take part in the activities of the various committees, commissions, circles and other bodies organized by the Soviets for the purpose of investigation, study and supervision of various branches of Soviet activities.
The trade unions have upwards of 11,000,000 members, of whom approximately a million and a half serve as members of factory committees or sub-committees or as factory and office delegates. These trade union committeemen and delegates play an important role in shaping the industrial process, in solving problems of production and in cultural and educational activities.
The cooperative societies have 35,000,000 members, of whom 500,000 have an active part in conducting the distributive and productive work of these organizations, which have an increasing importance in the economic life of the country.
The 1,400,000 members of the Communist Party form the most active element in the country, taking the leadership in productive and cultural advance. Close behind stand the League of Communist Youth, with 2,000,000 members between the ages of 16 and 23 years, and the Pioneers, with 1,700,000 members between the ages of 8 and 15. Between 1,500,000 and 2,000,000 of these young people are engaged in various public activities.
In addition various voluntary societies, with aggregate membership running well above 10,000,000, play an active part in public affairs. These include the Friends of Aviation and Chemical Defense, the Society of Automobiles and Roads, and many others, including local mutual aid societies in the villages and "patronage" societies which "adopt" for cultural or material aid villages or army detachments. The worker and peasant correspondents for the Soviet press, nearly 350,000 in number, also represent a powerful active social factor.
http://www.marxists.org/history/ussr/government/1928/sufds/index.htm
THE U.S.S.R. is an association of Soviet Republics, based on the principle of voluntary centralism.
http://64.19.142.10/www.marxists.org/history/ussr/government/1928/sufds/pictures/political-admin-thumb.jpg (http://www.marxists.org/history/ussr/government/1928/sufds/pictures/political-administrative-st.jpg) The Federal Government, representing the peoples within the Union, exercises complete authority in all matters relating to the central administration of the Union, viz., armed defense, foreign relations, transport and communications, political security. The Federal authority also exercises supervision to secure coordination and uniformity in regulations affecting economic matters, labor and the general well-being. Adherence to the Union does not limit the autonomy of the Republics in the field of internal administration.
The basis of the representative system rests upon the Soviets or elective councils.
The Soviet constitution (http://www.marxists.org/history/ussr/government/constitution/1918/index.htm) and laws are designed to afford the largest possible degree of autonomy and cultural development for the various national groups. They are free to preserve their distinctive customs, institutions and languages and a national group sufficiently numerous and geographically localized may under authorization form an autonomous republic or area with a full measure of local administrative autonomy.
The Soviets (http://www.marxists.org/glossary/orgs/s/o.htm#soviets), which are councils of delegates of a working citizenship, are designed to represent directly the productive life of the country. In the cities the basis of representation is mainly occupational, with the exception that persons in unorganized occupations (such as housewives) vote in geographic units. In the rural districts, where the productive life is homogeneous, the basis of representation is geographical.
Each village elects its local Soviet. The various village Soviets send delegates to a township (Volost) Soviet, which elects an executive committee to exercise administrative powers in its jurisdiction.
Similarly in the towns or cities delegates from the various productive groups of the community assemble in the town or city Soviet.
The District Congress of Soviets is composed of delegates from the village Soviets and from the Soviets of urban settlements of above 10,000 inhabitants. The delegates from the village Soviets are on the basis of one to 1,000 inhabitants, and in sparsely settled sections two or more villages may combine to send a delegate. The urban Soviets send one delegate to 200 electors.
The Provincial Congress of Soviets is composed of delegates from Urban Soviets, from Soviets of industrial settlements with a population of 5,000, and from the Volost Soviets.
In this fashion, from the original local or occupational unit, the Soviets pyramid up to the Congresses of Soviets representing the larger administrative divisions, the autonomous republics and areas, the constituent republics, and the entire Soviet Union.
The supreme organ of authority is the All-Union Congress of Soviets. This is composed of representatives of town and township Soviets, and of provincial Congresses of Soviets. It meets at least once in two years.(1) (http://www.marxists.org/history/ussr/government/1928/sufds/ch02.htm#foot-1)
During the interval between the All-Union Congresses of Soviets, the supreme authority devolves upon the Central Executive Committee, consisting of the Council of the Union and the Council of Nationalities.
The Council of the Union is elected by the Congress from representatives of the six constituent republics, in proportion to their population. It has in all 450 members.
The Council of Nationalities is formed of representatives of the Constituent and Autonomous Republics, five delegates from each, and of representatives of autonomous areas, one delegate from each, in all 139 members. The members of the Council are elected at the Republican and regional congresses of Soviets.
The Central Executive Committee (http://www.marxists.org/glossary/orgs/c/e.htm#central-executive-committee) meets three times a year. During the interval between sessions of the Central Executive Committee, the Presidium of the Committee is the supreme legislative, executive, and administrative organ of authority.
The Presidium of the Central Executive Committee consists of 27 members, nine representing the Council of the Union, nine representing the Council of Nationalities and nine elected by the two Councils in joint session.
The Council of People's Commissars (http://www.marxists.org/glossary/orgs/c/o.htm#cpc) is the executive and directive organ of the Central Executive Committee. Members of the Council are elected for two years. The following members of this executive cabinet were serving December 1, 1928:
Chairman: A. I. Rykov.
Vice-Chairmen: J. E. Rudzutak, V. V. Schmidt and V. V. Kuybyshev.
People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs: G. V. Tchitcherin.
People's Commissar for Army and Navy: K. E. Voroshilov.
People's Commissar for Transport: J. E. Rudzutak.
People's Commissar for Posts and Telegraphs; N. K. Antipov.
People's Commissar for Workers' and Peasants' Inspection: G. K. Ordjonikidze.
Chairman Supreme Economic Council: V. V. Kuybyshev.
People's Commissar for Labor: N. A. Uglanov.
People's Commissar for Trade and Commerce: A. I. Mikoyan.
People's Commisar for Finances: N. P. Briukhanov.
Director of Central Statistical Board: V. P. Miliutin.
On the same date the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee had the following six Chairmen: M. I. Kalinin, G. I. petrovsky, A. G. Cherviakov, Gazanfar Mussabekov, Netyrbay Aitakov, and Faizulla Khodzhayev. A. S. Enukidze was Secretary of the Central Executive Committee.
In each of the six Constituent Republics the legislative and administrative scheme is patterned on that of the federal Government. Each has its Congress of Soviets, its Central Executive Committee, and its Council of People's Commissars containing such Commissariats as are relative to the work of a Constituent Republic.
The same general scheme is also repeated in each of the Autonomous Republics, and likewise in the Autonomous Areas except that the latter have no Council of Commissars. In their scheme the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee fulfills the functions of the Council of People's Commissars.
In the Soviet administrative scheme, the People's Commissariats are divided into three categories: Commissariats of the whole Union alone; Commissariats which form part of the administrative scheme of the Constituent Republics, as well as of the Federal Government; Commissariats which appear in the Constituent Republics alone.
Commissariats of the whole Union alone are: Foreign Affairs, Army and Navy, Transport, Posts and Telegraphs, Trade and Commerce. The divisions of Trade and Commerce dealing with the internal trade are also in the Constituent Republics.
Commissariats in both the Federal Government and the Governments of the Constituent Republics are: Supreme Economic Council, Labor, Finance, Workers' and Peasants' Inspection.
Commissariats of the Constituent Republics only: Agriculture, Internal Affairs, Justice, Education, Health, Social Welfare.
The Supreme Court of the Union, attached to the Central Executive Committee, includes in its functions the following:
• To give the Supreme Courts of the Constituent Republics guiding interpretations on federal legislation.
• To render to the Central Executive Committee opinions on decisions of the Supreme Courts of the Constituent Republics which may seem in contradiction to the general legislation of the Union, or to affect the interests of the other republics.
• To give opinions, on demand of the Central Executive Committee, on the constitutionality of legislation of the Constituent Republics.
• To decide legal conflicts between the Constituent Republics.
• To examine cases of accusation against high officials of the Union.
A pyramidal representative form, similar to that adopted for the entire Union, with local and town Soviets as the base, obtains in each of the six Constituent Republics and in the autonomous republics and areas.
The permanent judicial system was established January 1, 1923. It includes People's (District) Courts of both civil and criminal jurisdiction, Provincial Courts of Second Instance, Supreme Courts of the Constituent Republics, and the Supreme Court of the Union, subdivided into various courts of special jurisdiction. There are also special Labor Courts, which may be the local People's Court sitting in special session for labor cases. A Civil Code, a Criminal Code, a Land Code and a Labor Code, and Codes of Civil and Criminal Procedure, were adopted in November, 1922. The first Code of Civil Status, defining marriage, family and guardianship rights, was adopted in 1918; a new code became operative January 1, 1927.
During the period of civil war and foreign intervention (http://www.marxists.org/glossary/events/r/u.htm#russian-civil-war-1918-20) the local administration of justice was largely in the hands of revolutionary Tribunals and Special Tribunals. The Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution (Cheka), which was abolished at the close of 1922, had extraordinary jurisdiction in important offenses against public order.
A federal Political Department with broad powers (O.G.P.U.) is attached to the Union Council of People's Commissaries for the purpose of combating political and economic counter-revolution, espionage and banditry. The Union Supreme Court has supervision over the legality of the actions of the O.G.P.U.
(...)
Soviet Democracy
Through various organizations, official, economic and civic, it is estimated that between 9,000,000 and 10,000,000 persons are actively engaged in the administration of the Soviet Union. The organization of society is designed to give public activities the broadest scope and to give the greatest possible number of the population the opportunity for active participation in their direction.
A total of 1,539,458 citizens were serving in 1927 as elected delegates to the various Soviets (local, township, provincial, republican and federal). Thus over a million and a half citizens, nearly 2.5 per cent of the total adult population, form part of the administrative machinery of the country. From io to 12 per cent of these delegates are women. In addition to these elected delegates upwards of a million workers and peasants take part in the activities of the various committees, commissions, circles and other bodies organized by the Soviets for the purpose of investigation, study and supervision of various branches of Soviet activities.
The trade unions have upwards of 11,000,000 members, of whom approximately a million and a half serve as members of factory committees or sub-committees or as factory and office delegates. These trade union committeemen and delegates play an important role in shaping the industrial process, in solving problems of production and in cultural and educational activities.
The cooperative societies have 35,000,000 members, of whom 500,000 have an active part in conducting the distributive and productive work of these organizations, which have an increasing importance in the economic life of the country.
The 1,400,000 members of the Communist Party form the most active element in the country, taking the leadership in productive and cultural advance. Close behind stand the League of Communist Youth, with 2,000,000 members between the ages of 16 and 23 years, and the Pioneers, with 1,700,000 members between the ages of 8 and 15. Between 1,500,000 and 2,000,000 of these young people are engaged in various public activities.
In addition various voluntary societies, with aggregate membership running well above 10,000,000, play an active part in public affairs. These include the Friends of Aviation and Chemical Defense, the Society of Automobiles and Roads, and many others, including local mutual aid societies in the villages and "patronage" societies which "adopt" for cultural or material aid villages or army detachments. The worker and peasant correspondents for the Soviet press, nearly 350,000 in number, also represent a powerful active social factor.
http://www.marxists.org/history/ussr/government/1928/sufds/index.htm